ICFI expels a leading member of German section: Part One

Gen Z protest in Berlin
Note on the publication of documents relating to my expulsion from the International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI)

G. Link

It has been almost one year since my membership in the ICFI was unilaterally “terminated” by the leadership of the German section of this organization, doubtless acting with the approval or on behalf of the international leadership. I have long wondered what to write on the significance of this incident that has not been noted publicly before by others, especially the authors of this website, permanent-revolution.org.

My case is another indication of the political crisis of the ICFI, which arises out of the contradiction between its professed political aims on the one hand and its political theory and practice on the other. The struggle to resolve this crisis, which manifests in different forms and to varying degrees in countless other organizations, is of chief importance to those in the Marxist tradition seeking for a viable way forward – beyond our present reality of perpetual war, senseless suffering and the insensate enrichment of a tiny degraded few.

I still uphold the principles that made me seek admission to the ICFI around 2016: Opposition to militarism, war and class society; support for socialism, democracy and the self-emancipation of the world’s working classes; as well as a deep commitment to historical truth, scientific enquiry, political-philosophical debate, critique and self-reflection.

Rosa Luxemburg is credited to have said: “Those who don’t move do not notice their chains.” This is true for class society as a whole, but it is also true for political life in organizations like the present-day ICFI which, while ostensibly aiming to transcend class society, reproduces “new” (not actually new) forms of political inequality and exploitation within itself, thus perpetually betraying its aim.

For years, I attributed every problem I had within the party and every criticism I had of articles published on the site to my incomplete knowledge of Marxism or a lack of understanding on my part. I was explicitly encouraged to see it this way. I was taught to dismiss charges of “sectarianism” or “cultism” as politically motivated allegations coming from individuals who reject the scientific striving for truth and any notion of revolutionary centralism. It took real intellectual effort and internal political struggle, brought together with my lived experience campaigning, for me to come to grips with these conceptions.

During my time as a member of the ICFI, I engaged in political discussions with tens of thousands of people, wrote hundreds of articles for the World Socialist Web Site (wsws.org), ran as an election candidate on every political level from university to European Parliament and was in the end responsible for leading the youth organization in Germany. I was quickly promoted to high-ranking boards and committees – e.g. the German editorial and international meetings –, often somewhat quicker than seemed adequate to me and without having to contest any kind of internal election.

One would think that a record of this kind would go hand in hand with the right to have some meaningful say on questions relating to the political line and orientation of the party. But as my experience has demonstrated to me, this is not really the case. The political line is not determined in a materialist way out of democratic internal discussion, but in a pragmatic-idealist way. It is conceived of somewhere at the very top and then imposed on the membership through the mechanism of “assimilating the line of the WSWS”. Thus, an antagonism emerges between those who determine the line and those who are supposed to promote or peddle it among the working class.

The leadership of the ICFI routinely condemns critics or other political tendencies as “complacent”. But on an intellectual level, it is hard to imagine a more complacent leadership than one which – while speaking of an ever-deepening or escalating crisis and registering rather mixed success – continues to declare its record to be uniquely “correct” and “vindicated”. In this logic, to the degree that one’s political progress is deemed unsatisfactory, the blame is placed either with the class enemy (duh!), the “objective conditions” (but they are “revolutionary”?), destructive outside critics – or their own membership, which should simply “act upon the objective situation” (i.e. work harder).

Ultimately, a confluence of different factors brought me into conflict with the leadership: 1) The unwillingness on the ICFI’s part to shed light on the class antagonism within the Palestinian movement[i], thus playing a role in weakening it; 2) the unprincipled expulsion of Samuel Tissot[ii]; 3) my reading of the original critiques of Alex Steiner and Frank Brenner and realizing that their political essence had been misrepresented; 4) resistance on the leadership’s part to consider whether a security lapse had contributed to Bogdan Syrotiuk’s arrest; 5) and chiefly, a practice that consistently rejected any political self-criticism, hindered the clarification of unsolved theoretical issues and instead placed constantly growing material demands on our political work.

It was a situation akin to burnout that in the summer of 2024 triggered the written exchange of political differences (my initial 8-page memorandum  [published below] was followed three months later by a 23-page letter [to be published later in this series] that, while seemingly “restating orthodoxy”, rejected my concerns entirely). In late 2024, following an initiative of the leadership, my employment by the party was terminated, without the differences being resolved. I was subsequently “relieved of all party duties” and barred from participation in all meetings with the understanding that I should “work the differences through”.

But the more I read and pondered, the more issues arose. Aside from the polemics between Steiner, Brenner, North, Long and Talbot, I reviewed writings by former ICFI members such as “Gatekeeping in the Service of Opportunism”, “My Search for Revolution” by Clare Cowen and “The Rise and Fall of Gerry Healy” by Bob Pitt. I also felt that it was inadequate to reject Aidan Beatty’s book “The Party is Always Right” out of hand based on its first pages, without engaging in a critical examination of the main body of that book which, while shaped by its author’s opposition to Trotskyism, was not reducible to it. 

In February 2025 I was told that I could not remain a member if I held the opinion that the criticisms written by Steiner and Brenner were “partially valid”. In the course of 2025, it became increasingly clear from our exchanges that I would see no acknowledgement of my criticisms nor a dialectical approach to them. In November of 2025, I received a unilateral “termination” of my membership, against which I protested in a note [to be published later in this series] sent to all members I was able to contact. So far, I have not received any feedback from active members, including the leadership.

***

Disclaimer:

Publishing on permanent-revolution.org doesn’t mean that I share all positions and views that are voiced by individuals on this site. For example, there are different opinions as to the political essence of the term “imperialism” as it evolved over time and is now applied to the present situation. I also appreciate that Daniel Lazare’s articles generated a discussion that did not shy away from criticism. That being said, I believe it is equally important for me to state that I do feel fundamental agreement with the major critiques on this site and urge a serious engagement with them. This is specifically true for the two series Marxism Without Its Head or Its Heart and The Downward Spiral of the ICFI.

This collection of texts is aimed at an audience within the working class and socialist partisans, especially but not exclusively those in and around the ICFI. All texts were carefully reviewed to not contain any personal or otherwise sensitive information that was not yet part of the public record. Therefore, it needs to be noted emphatically that any allegation of “publishing damaging party secrets” in this context would be drawn from the tradition of bureaucratic opportunism, not revolutionary socialism. As Trotsky said when he was confronted with this kind of allegation, the truth will prove to be stronger than all bureaucratic apparatuses – including the small ones.



[i] This issue was brought up in my initial memorandum and was also the subject of several subsequent exchanges that are documented in the correspondence I submitted to the Central Committee. In an attempt to identify historical reference points for a discussion of the contradictions of the Palestinian movement, I drew attention to the class dynamics of national movements in countries such as Vietnam, Cuba and Sri Lanka, where Trotskyism had a record of clearly articulating the treacherous role of bourgeois nationalists, while defending and addressing the democratic aspirations of the working classes in those countries.

[ii] A note of protest to my branch leadership, in which I defended Sam Tissot’s right to bring forward his critique, criticized the hostile conduct of the leadership and encouraged it to engage with the issues in good faith, can likewise be found in the correspondence files. It was sent to my branch leadership a couple of weeks after the publication of his expulsion and submitted to the Central Committee in spring of 2025.

Thoughts on the development of our political line and our work

[The following was written in July 2024 addressed to the the Central Committee (Parteivorstand) of the German section of the ICFI on demand of Johannes Stern and Christoph Vandreier. However, it was initially only circulated within the much smaller executive leadership group who replied to it. Upon my demand both texts were in the end circulated within the Central Committee.]

We are rapidly approaching a revolutionary situation. As was recently emphasized – e.g. in the summer school contribution on the degeneration of the OCI –, under these conditions the struggle against centrism and any tendency towards national opportunism is crucial for building the revolutionary party and for the success of the revolution. Therefore, to further develop a correct perspective for the working class, we must always strive to grasp the world situation in all its complexity and contradictions as accurately as possible.

This is important to counteract unintended adaptations to concepts propagated by the bourgeoisie and its ideologues. The victory of the socialist revolution in this period depends on the working class – and thus above all its revolutionary vanguard – correctly understanding the growth of class antagonisms and the eruption of imperialist antagonisms that make its conquest of power both necessary and possible.

With this in mind, I have tried to put some of my thoughts into a more organized form. I look forward to exploring the outlined questions and suggestions further in discussion, if you so like. The prospect of a „multipolar world order” signals growing antagonisms between the imperialist powers.

Perspective of “multipolar world order” signals growing antagonisms between the imperialist powers

1. The current wars – the proxy war in Ukraine, the genocide in Gaza, and all other international conflicts – stem from the crisis of the imperialist world system, which is to be brought into a new equilibrium by means of these wars. At the heart of this war drive are the imperialist powers, above all the USA and the European NATO powers, but also countries like Japan, Australia and Canada.

2. The crisis of imperialism currently finds political and ideological expression in the competition between proponents of a “unipolar” and a “multipolar world order.” Both doctrines and their various shades have followers on both sides of the Atlantic and in every country.

3. The first of the two views represents the past of the imperialist world system – the supposedly “unchallenged” hegemony of the USA – and the second represents its future under capitalist auspices. The capitalists’ means of achieving this “future” is world war, a major war between the imperialist powers. The alternative to this future is socialism.

4. The perspective of a “multipolar world order” is therefore, in my view, not simply a petty-bourgeois pacifist illusion, but closely linked to the economic interests of the imperialist bourgeoisie. It can already be found in the thinking of leading bourgeois strategists such as Henry Kissinger[1] and Helmut Schmidt[2] and is aggressively advocated by Federal Chancellor Olaf Scholz.[3] [4] It is explicitly enshrined multiple times in the National Security Strategy [of 2023], the first such document of the Federal Government.[5]

5. In 2017, Gernot Erler, the well-connected former Special Representative of the Federal Government for Russia and Eastern Europe, delivered a lecture at the Friedrich Ebert Memorial foundation on the anniversary of the October Revolution, entitled “From Pax Americana to the Multipolar World Order,” which anticipated key aspects of this agenda.[6]

Herfried Münkler, whom we have identified as an important intellectual forerunner of German imperialism, published a tome of over 500 pages on the same topic in October of last year.[7] Even a figure like Professor Peter Brandt has exchanged the Trotsky posters of his youth for the “Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold” [Black-Red-Gold of the German Republicans] and appears in close accord with openly German-nationalist forces.[8]

6. In my view, the core of the narrative of the “multipolar world order” lies in giving expression to the perspective of German and European imperialists and in questioning the global power claim of the USA, simultaneously placing China, Russia and India on a level with imperialist powers. The ideological struggle against this geostrategic view is therefore an important task for us.

7. Our important warnings about a third imperialist world war will gain even richer content and greater impact if we present a more nuanced picture of the conflicting material interests of the capitalist states involved, especially those of the various NATO powers. A world war does not develop from the unity of the imperialist powers, but from their disunity. I therefore believe that, in this context, formulations such as “US-NATO axis” and “US-NATO proxy war against Russia” do not accurately reflect the geopolitical dynamics and are prone to obscuring these conflicting interests instead of highlighting them. For there are significant differences between the imperialist powers, particularly regarding their views on Russia.

8. In particular, there has traditionally been a considerable discrepancy between the German and the US views on Russia and Ukraine. US strategists such as George Friedman have stated that a paramount goal of US foreign policy is to prevent an agreement between Germany and Russia[9] and to this end, they seek to instrumentalize the countries of the so-called “Intermarium.”[10] German capital perceives this as a threat, since it traditionally views these same countries as its own sphere of influence, which it intends to dominate. This conception of Germany’s role as a “power in the center of Europe” can be traced back from government advisors like Herfried Münkler to early German geopoliticians such as Ratzel, Naumann, Haushofer, and others.[11]

9. The prospect of dismembering Russia is currently strongly rejected by figures such as Harald Kujat (“You can’t defeat a nuclear power”), Kay-Achim Schönbach (“We need Russia against China”), and other right-wing militarists. For example, Jörg Baberowski writes: “An uncontrolled, violent disintegration of Russia is not in the interest of Europe, nor in the interest of Ukraine. I don’t want to imagine what might happen if Russia broke apart, warlords ruled, interethnic conflicts broke out, Azerbaijan and Armenia became embroiled in another bloody war, or Dagestan disintegrated. We must work towards changing Russia from within.”[12]

10. Baberowski articulates German interests not only by advocating for regime change “from within,” but also – similar to Kuyat – by attributing considerable viability to the Russian government system: “The government understands how to rally the population behind it by selling the war as a conflict with the West… Putin has sworn enmity to the West – but this oath is directed inwards, at the Russian population. Putin knows very well that he could not win a war against the Western military alliance. The rhetorical staging is intended to control public opinion and strengthen the will to fight.”[13]

Are the Russian and Chinese capitalists “enemies” or tools of imperialism?

11. With this, Baberowski articulates the “great lie” of the Russian elites, namely that Putin’s government is a beleaguered bulwark against imperialism, against which a tragic and heroic struggle is being waged. Since the same view, albeit with reversed framing, is also propagated by the West (“Putin is attacking the Western peace order”), and all our pseudo-leftist opponents – regardless of whether they position themselves as “pro-Russian” or “anti-Russian” – join in on this chorus, workers around the world are confronted with this narrative.

12. But it is not the truth. The Russian capitalist class developed out of the Stalinist bureaucracy, which Cannon so emphatically characterized in his “Open Letter” as a “petty-bourgeois agency of imperialism”. By reintroducing capitalism and introducing Soviet means of production to the world market, it increased the dependence of the formerly Soviet economy on finance capital. The post-Soviet oligarchies are therefore organically incapable of waging a political struggle against imperialism.

13. This applies not only to Zelensky, but also to Putin. From the point of view of the international working class, he is less a “victim” of imperialism as he is its henchman. His overtures to Trump and Schröder have shown that he has no problem offering himself and the Russian resources to imperialism. The struggle of Russian workers against Putin is therefore not separate from, and certainly not in contradiction to, the struggle against imperialism, but is rather inextricably linked to it.

14. This emphasis on the dependent nature of the Russian capitalists is not intended to deny the immediate danger of nuclear war; on the contrary, there is a very real danger that tactical nuclear weapons will be used in Ukraine, Lithuania, Georgia, Romania, Belarus, and the western part of the Russian Federation. This danger arises in particular from the fact that the imperialist powers – above all Washington and Berlin – are competing for control of these territories (called “Bloodlands” by Timothy Snyder). Far from “not thinking about” what the use of Russian nuclear weapons would mean for Europe’s security, German imperialism is deliberately seeking to create conditions under which the damage from potential Russian nuclear strikes would be – to Germany’s advantage – concentrated on these countries. These strategic considerations can be clearly traced by examining the “Taurus debate”.

15. We should therefore warn with particular vehemence that the perspectives of Baberowski, Kujat, Lafontaine and others are not an expression of pacifism or opposition to war, but aim to instrumentalize the Russian military apparatus for an anti-Eastern European and anti-American agenda.[14]

16. The danger of making concessions to the perspective of German nationalist propagandists is reflected in a sentence from our party congress resolution, which I have attempted to criticize: “Not yet able to stand up to the USA, the [German] ruling class fully embraced the US war drive against Russia.” The sentence suggests – even when one considers the context – that Germany is not primarily waging war in Ukraine out of its own self-interest, but rather submitted to the “US war drive against Russia”. German imperialism thus appears not as a rival, but as a kind of appendage or “vassal” of the USA.

17. We should leave no room for this interpretation, which is now also circulated by European think tanks[15]. It cannot be denied, of course, that German imperialism is currently militarily inferior to the USA. But in my view, a key motive for German rearmament and the participation of German imperialism in the proxy war in Ukraine is precisely to “stand up to the USA”.

18. For similar reasons, we should critically examine exactly what it entails that we routinely refer to China as the “main enemy” of the US, or even – as in the Party Congress resolution – as the “most important adversary of the imperialist powers”. Of course, the imperialist powers see the Chinese working class, just as the Russian working class, as an important adversary whose exploitation must be intensified. But it would be wrong to designate the Chinese nation as a whole as an enemy of imperialism. For the CCP regime is thoroughly pro-imperialist. Much like the Russian oligarchs, Chinese capitalists in the past period have ingratiated themselves with American and European imperialism and opened “their” countries to imperialism in order to intensify the exploitation of the working class.

19. Here too, we should consider the rivalry between the imperialist powers (“decoupling” vs. “derisking”)[16] more closely to shed light on the conflicts of interest within the imperialist camp that enable the Chinese elite to assume the pose of an opponent of US imperialism. For the US is undoubtedly preparing for a war against China. However, the new anti-Chinese formats such as AUKUS and QUAD show that they cannot automatically count on the support of the European powers for such a war[17], since a US-led war against China would affect European economic interests. Japan’s position on this issue is also extremely important.

20. The Chinese elite as a whole is not an opponent of imperialism, but in many respects more of an accomplice of imperialism.[18] This is also evident in Xi’s striking receptiveness to initiatives from European imperialists like Macron, von der Leyen[19], and Scholz[20]. If the imperialist exploitation of the Chinese proletariat is to be intensified, this will not happen mechanically through mere external pressure, but rather through a political agency that develops from within the Chinese elite itself.

21. In 1927, Trotsky wrote against the subordination of the CCP to the KMT:

“It is a grave error to think that imperialism mechanically, from the outside, welds together all the classes of China… The revolutionary struggle against imperialism does not weaken, but rather strengthens, the political differentiation of the classes. Imperialism is an extremely significant force in China’s internal relations. The main source of this force is not the warships in the waters of the Yangtze River – these are merely tools – but the economic and political alliance of foreign capital with the Chinese bourgeoisie… But everything that mobilizes the oppressed and exploited masses of working people inevitably pushes the Chinese national bourgeoisie into an open block with the imperialists. The class struggle between the bourgeoisie and the masses of workers and peasants is not weakened by imperialist pressure, but on the contrary, is intensified by it in every serious conflict, even to the point of bloody civil war.” (Emphasis added)

22. I think that we should clearly classify both the CCP regime and the Putin regime as “pro-imperialist” or as agencies of imperialism. In this manner, we would help workers in these countries understand that their struggle against these regimes is not a betrayal of the struggle against imperialism, but rather an integral part of it. This would also enable us to provide leadership to the working class in the looming or developing civil wars in Russia and China.

Political struggle against postcolonialism in the student movement and against petty-bourgeois Palestinian nationalism

1. Since October 7, 2023, the terms “Palestinian nationalism” and “Palestinian working class” have systematically disappeared in our articles and perspectives, whereas this was not the case in older articles. I would like to critically examine this and request that it be changed.

2. In discussions, the response was given that “the Palestinian working class can currently achieve nothing”. If this means solely that the Palestinian working class cannot defeat the Zionist regime and imperialism without the support of the international working class, then that is correct. However, if it means that establishing the political independence of the Palestinian working class is not a pressing task for Marxists, then that is wrong. The fact that the working population of Palestine is being massacred by Zionist forces does not diminish the importance of an open reckoning with bourgeois Palestinian nationalism, but rather makes it all the more crucial.

3. The struggle for socialist leadership of the Palestinian masses – i.e., the struggle for the establishment of an IC section in Palestine/Israel – must, in my opinion, begin with the observation that the various forms of bourgeois nationalism have irrevocably proven themselves to be tools of Zionism and/or the Arab bourgeoisie. Hamas and Fatah are not waging a political struggle against Zionism, but are dependent on capital from Israel and other states and are undoubtedly also infiltrated by various intelligence services.[21] Wikileaks documents and other publicly available sources have clearly demonstrated how actively Hamas is infiltrated, supported, and manipulated by Israel[22], Qatar[23], and Egypt[24], among others.

4. As for the PLO/Fatah, it has demonstrated over the past thirty years that it rejects a political struggle against Zionism. A general strike in the West Bank, where the Zionist regime, under the supervision of nationalists, exploits the labor of Palestinian workers, was quickly suppressed in April.[25] Even to address the immediate tasks facing the Palestinian masses – the struggle against Zionism – they are forced to settle accounts with the various factions of the Palestinian bourgeoisie, who have proven themselves impotent and/or open agents of Zionism. We should intervene on the ground and continue working on developing transitional demands aimed at halting Israel’s genocide, but also at ending the broader historical and geopolitical conflict.

5. In this way, the political independence of the Israeli working class can also be strengthened. Netanyahu’s “big lie” is that he is waging a war “against terrorism” and for the liberation of the hostages. In reality, the regime has no interest in freeing the hostages, nor in an end to military attacks on Israeli territory, because that would eliminate a key element of its “casus belli”. As the then IDF intelligence chief Amos Yadlin explained in 2007, Israel could be “happy” that Hamas controlled the Gaza Strip, as this provided the Israeli military with a pretext to “treat Gaza like a hostile state”.[26] Meanwhile, the material driving forces and war aims of the Israeli campaign of annihilation are becoming increasingly clear – as is the complicity of the Arab bourgeoisie.[27]

6. To the extent that we avoid a direct political confrontation with Palestinian nationalism, we help enable bourgeois forces to further mislead the masses and politically profit from the genocide. This manifests itself in a continued dominance of petty-bourgeois-nationalist perspectives within the protest movement and even growing international support for Hamas.

As Der Spiegel writes: “A Hamas leader in Lebanese exile is optimistic – and has good reason to be: After seven months of bombing, the organization is in much better shape than Israel had hoped.” (Spiegel)[28]

7. Trotsky writes in “What Next?” about the SAP [Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei, 1931-1945]:

What distinguishes Bolshevism on the national question is that it regards oppressed nations, even the most backward ones, not only as objects but also as subjects of politics. Bolshevism is not content with recognizing their ‘right’ to self determination and with parliamentary protests against the disregard of this right. Bolshevism penetrates deep into the oppressed nations, rises up against the oppressors, links their struggle with the struggle of the proletariat of capitalist countries, instructs the oppressed Chinese, Indians, and Arabs in the art of insurrection, and assumes full responsibility for this work in the presence of the civilized executioners. Only here does true Bolshevism begin, that is, revolutionary Marxism in action. What remains below this boundary is all centrism. (Emphasis added)

8. I understand this remark to mean that it is the task of Bolshevism to assume “full responsibility” for the uprising of the oppressed masses – which, conversely, also means denying the national bourgeoisie any mandate for such an uprising. Such an approach is incompatible with the notion that “Hamas organized an uprising” and that the last few months were therefore not the right time to criticize them. In reality, Hamas did not organize the uprising against Zionism that the Palestinian masses had been demanding for decades, but rather first thwarted it as best it could and finally – when this was no longer possible in October – betrayed it by leaking the uprising plans to the Israeli side and employing bourgeois-terrorist tactics aimed at preventing a solidarity movement of the Israeli working class.

Thoughts on democratic centralism, party building and the fight against Centrism

1. If one takes the question of dialectics seriously, criticism of the party leadership is a prerequisite for the growth of the movement and the broadening of its perspective – and therefore precisely the most important task of every single member. We should therefore systematically demand that every member criticize our political line and our work. In this way, we prepare ourselves against impressionism and the pressure of the petty bourgeoisie. At the same time, we strengthen our connection to the working class and gain insight about the degree to which we are keeping up with the times.

2. Trotsky writes in “What Next?” in connection with the fight against centrism: “Lenin considered the control of the party masses over the party apparatus to be the first condition for the party’s control over the state.” I understand this to affirm the view that our political line arises from controversial debate within the party membership. To the extent that the leadership presents a particular new tactical orientation or practical initiative without soliciting criticism and feedback, the danger grows that contradictions cannot be resolved productively, but are instead located towards the individual, where they accumulate.

3. This danger is exacerbated by a practice that, while encouraging young members in particular to “work at the highest political level,” does not systematically prioritize a scientific-critical study of Marxism in daily practice. For example, at the very beginning of the European election campaign, I had expressed the hope (albeit not very emphatically) that the elections could be used as an opportunity to examine how Marxism had been attacked in the various European countries during the last century. In the countries where we have sections, this has proven important, in my estimation, for the development of a cadre. More resources should also be devoted to the analysis of intra-European antagonisms and class dynamics.

4. There is also a tendency to physically separate the practice of the party youth from those of the older cadre, which is paradoxically lamented by representatives of both “generations.” It would instead be beneficial to take up the open questions, to specifically address the historically transmitted impressions that weigh on the young cadre and to respond to them by drawing on the experience and theoretical knowledge of the older cadre. This could be done within the framework of special reading sessions as well as in the form of joint article projects.

5. In general, ways and means should be found to involve the entire membership even more actively in the development of initiatives, operational plans, campaigns, and especially in the preparation of their political substance. Consciously soliciting feedback and criticism, possibly in writing, is essential to distribute leadership responsibilities as broadly as possible, thereby relieving the burden on leadership personnel while simultaneously inspiring them. Personal difficulties must be acknowledged and taken into account when distributing practical tasks; at the same time, every member must be expected to actively and, if necessary, critically position themselves vis-a-vis the party line.

6. After the completion of the current historical study courses, I would like to initiate reading projects in the medium term on Lenin’s “What Is to Be Done?” as well as texts that, according to David North, have played an important role in the development of today’s cadre (Slaughter’s “Opportunism and Empiricism” and “Lenin on Dialectics”). Reading courses on important series by David, such as “Trotsky’s Last Year” and “Cliff Slaughter: A Political Biography”, are also still pending.

 

 



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Mao Zedong's War on science and Chinese medicine

Book cover translation: Shanghai Chicken-Blood Therapy, (Inaugural Issue / First Issue), Internal Material · Please Keep Carefully, Edited by the Shanghai Municipal Chicken-Blood Therapy Liaison Committee

by a Chinese Trotskyist

1. The dawn of China's medical modernization

 

The progress of medicine in every country is often accompanied by important events, and the same is true in China. In fact, China had, early in the 20th century, almost completely eliminated ancient folk medicine doctors and replaced them with modern medical doctors. Yet today folk medicine doctors occupy an important position in China, and are even the starting point for the Chinese government to promote "national self-confidence".

 

In 1910, China was still under the imperial rule of the Qing Dynasty. At this time, China's bureaucracy was corrupt, and the dynasty was but a ghostly reminder of its formidable power in previous centuries.  Just ten years prior, the Boxer rebellion swept across China. It’s defeat in 1901 by an alliance of imperialist powers greatly weakened an already ailing Qing dynasty.[1]

At that time Tibet and the banks of the Yangtze River were controlled by the British government, Yunnan was indirectly controlled by the French government through the colony of Vietnam, and Shandong became a de facto German colony. Tsarist Russia and Japan were fighting for northeast China, and even went to war over it. The Russo-Japanese War broke out on Chinese soil and ended with Japan's complete victory in the Battle of Tsushima. It was at this time that the Qing government, whose weakness in resisting the imperialist powers brought it to the precipice of collapse, faced a new major challenge: the pneumonic plague.

What became known historically as the “Manchurian plague” one of the most dangerous diseases in world history, claimed the lives of millions of people. Whether it was the Black Death that swept through Europe or the plague that completely destroyed the afterglow of the Mongol Empire, no country had truly controlled a plague of this magnitude before.  Until the rise of a genuine science of medicine and biology in the 18th and 19th centuries there were no scientifically guided procedures for determining the origins of a plague or its method of transmission. There were thus few lessons to be learned from this historical record, which in turn reinforced the conviction that plagues are acts of god about which there is nothing that can be done.[2]

 

In fact, the Manchurian plague originated in Tsarist Russia. Siberia's vast and sparsely populated land was full of pathogens, and cheap Chinese laborers were regarded as the best labor force by the Tsarist aristocracy. When this large-scale plague broke out in Russia, more than 600,000 Chinese workers were working in Siberia. But when the Tsarist government discovered the plague outbreak, it immediately blocked the news and repatriated all Chinese workers, many of whom had contracted the plague due to poor living conditions. The epidemic broke out in Manchuria on the Sino-Russian border and quickly swept through northeastern China. The shameless tsar, who single-handedly created the plague, declared at this time that if China could not control the epidemic, Tsarist Russia would send troops south to "help" the Qing government control the epidemic. Another emerging imperialist country, Japan, responded the same way: if China could not control the epidemic and led to the Russian invasion, Japan would send troops to intervene.

At this time, the progressives in the Chinese government knew that traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors could not control any plague, and the threat of force from Japan and Russia was imminent. The rulers of the Qing dynasty still remember the events of the great powers' conquest of the capital during the Boxer rebellion. The diplomat Shi Zhaoji of the Qing Empire recommended the famous medical scientist Wu Liande, a Malaysian of Chinese heritage, to lead the government’s efforts against the plague. Wu Liande was given full authority to wage the war against the epidemic in the northeast region.[3] 

Wu Liande


2. Wu Liande’s victory: science defeats a plague

As a doctor of medicine, Wu Liande received a complete and scientific medical education. He knew that to understand a plague, we must first understand its transmission route.

Wu Liande and Russian scientists formed a joint investigation team to the northeast, and the group first came to Manchuria and then to Russia to investigate. After investigation, Wu Liande and Russian scientists found out that the plague was introduced to China from Russia, and as early as 1905, there was a plague epidemic in Russia. The vector of transmission is animal marmots. Due to the extremely rampant smuggling of marmots on the Sino-Russian border and frequent contact between humans and animals, marmots have become one of the reasons for the spread of the epidemic. However, after 1910, the Tsarist Russian government adopted the method of blocking news and driving Chinese workers who had the plague back to China. These returned Chinese workers returned to their hometowns, causing the spread of the plague epidemic. According to Wu Liande's statistics, the plague epidemic has affected more than 70 counties in the northeast region, and more than 60,000 people have been killed. More than 5,000 people were killed in Fujiadian, Harbin City, the epicenter of the epidemic.

 

After knowing the source of the epidemic, Wu Liande decided to perform an autopsy on the bodies of the victims. But this is difficult to do in China, which is very backward and conservative, as experienced by the great European doctors hundreds of years ago. Under great pressure from the people, Wu Liande secretly dissected the body of a Japanese woman who died of plague, and after pathological research, he concluded that the "culprit" of the epidemic was plague bacillus, and airborne transmission was an important channel for the spread of plague bacillus.

 

In the face of the menacing epidemic, the Chinese government called on all doctors, including ancient Chinese folk medicine doctors and modern medical doctors. But not a single folk medicine doctor was willing to go to the epidemic area. Eventually, all Chinese medical school students were called up to the northeast. Most of them did not have a full medical education, but they believed that their efforts could really help ordinary people who were threatened.

 

After the doctors and nurses arrived at the front line, Wu Liande first blocked Fujiadian, the epicenter of the epidemic, to isolate Fujiadian from the outside world. More than 1,100 military officers and soldiers were sent from the Changchun area to isolate the epidemic area from the outside world. More than 1,000 soldiers along the Middle East Road railway checked passengers, and passengers who got off the train had to be quarantined for a week without symptoms before leaving. The Qing Empire also imposed "lockdown" measures on Shanhaiguan to prevent the epidemic from entering China's densely populated North China Plain.

 

Wu Liande divided different designated isolation hospitals with white, red, yellow and blue, and divided different isolation ward areas. There were clearly designated epidemic hospitals, hospitals treating patients with mild symptoms, hospitals treating patients suspected of infection and epidemic prevention medical offices. Patients were placed into the isolation wards of the corresponding hospitals for treatment according to their symptoms. This was an unprecedented first in China's fight against infectious diseases. All houses are repeatedly disinfected by burning sulfur and other methods to cut off the transmission route of germs. Isolation hospitals isolate patients from the outside world and completely block the source of infectious diseases. There were not enough isolation wards, and Wu Liande also borrowed train cars from Japan and Tsarist Russia to isolate patients. This allowed China to quickly control the spread of the epidemic and make full use of China's scarce medical resources.

 

In order to prevent the spread of the epidemic, doctors decided to burn the corpses after discussion. On January 30, 1911, with the support of Zaifeng, the regent of the Qing Dynasty, Wu Liande burned more than 2,200 corpses. 


Disposal of corpses


In addition, Wu Liande also invented a mask with a potion in the middle layer. This double-layer mask is the prototype of the mask in modern medicine. In some backward countries, Wu Liande-style masks are still in use. These measures  basically blocked the spread of the epidemic.

 

Health workers wearing masks designed by Wu Liande

Through the efforts of Wu Liande and various departments of the Qing Empire, the Qing Empire eliminated the plague epidemic in more than 60 days. This first "war against the epidemic" in Chinese history went down in history as China's victory. In the past thousands of years, every plague that has swept across the country in China has killed at least one-fifth of the country's population. According to post-mortem statistics, the Qing Empire dispatched nearly 3,000 medical teams, troops and other anti-epidemic forces at that time, and 297 people sacrificed their lives in the fight against the plague. The plague was also one of the greatest successes in the history of infectious disease prevention and control in the world, and doctors finally knew how to completely prevent and control the epidemic. In April 1911, the Qing government also held the World Plague Research Conference to share this great achievement.

Officials from Qing government sharing photographs at an international conference


 3. The folk medicine doctor was eliminated

 

In this plague, China's traditional folk medicine doctors were defeated. The most famous folk medicine doctor in Northeast China refused to wear a mask and eventually contracted the plague. When he died, his wife, wearing a full set of protective measures, left his body on the street in disgust, waiting for a professional doctor to collect the body. Even an illiterate woman with small feet[4] knew to stay away from the corpse, and he didn't know it. In this great plague, the doctors of traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors published their so-called prescriptions in newspapers and argued about which herb could better treat patients. But none of them wanted to reach the epidemic area. After this major plague, almost all Chinese people knew the huge difference between traditional folk medicine doctors and modern medicine, and traditional  folk medicine doctors quickly declined.

 

Using the tools of modern medicine, Chinese doctors began to analyze the active ingredients of traditional folk medicine doctors on a large scale, and finally discovered many shocking facts: the drugs used in traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors to treat depression, anxiety and sleep aids generally contain a lot of lead and mercury. A patient with anxiety and insomnia will not cry or make trouble due to nervous system poisoning after drinking drugs containing lead. Most of the drugs used for diuresis in traditional Chinese medicine can directly damage the kidney structure, which can of course increase urine, but it will also cause irreversible damage to the kidneys of the human body. A large number of drugs believed in traditional medicine that can increase blood circulation have been proven to contain a large amount of saponins. These saponins can rupture the body's blood cells, destroy platelets, and cause nosebleeds. In the end, according to statistics, the average life expectancy of princes in the Qing Dynasty royal family in China was 32 years old, and the average life expectancy of princesses was 21 years old. [5]But at that time, the average life expectancy of Chinese people who did not receive any folk medicine treatment could reach about 40 years

 

All this was gradually moving forward, and with the gradual implementation of Chinese education and the propaganda of intellectuals, traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors finally lost all fig leafs of authority and were rejected by the Chinese. But everything changed with the coming of the CCP.

 

4. Mao’s promotion of anti-intellectualism and irrationalism

 

Mao’s hostility to modern science, the form in which his anti-intellectualism was expressed, was closely connected to his embrace of a crude form of Chinese nationalism.  As far as Mao was concerned, any field of scientific endeavor that traced its roots back to Chinese culture and tradition was always to be favored over those sciences that developed out of an international exchange of ideas over the centuries.  The latter were suspected of being infused with bourgeois ideas.  This ideology of anti-intellectualism and fear of foreign influence came out in its most extreme form in the years of the Cultural Revolution but it can be traced back to the earliest phases of Mao’s career.  Mao was responsible for many anti-intellectual and irrational actions in his life that proved very harmful to China. The Maoists who regard it as idolatry to criticize Mao are as anti-intellectual as he was.

In 1953, Mao Zedong personally promoted traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors throughout the country and accused modern medicine of being bourgeois. He directly identified traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors as the so-called precious heritage of Chinese culture and demanded that China carry forward traditional folk medicine doctors.[6] This irrational man even opposed all concepts of modern medicine, believing that traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors were a new path independent of modern medicine. He forced all medical students to study Chinese medicine, regardless of whether they had received a complete modern medical education.[7] Under his strong promotion, these traditional folk medicine doctors dared to use decoctions made from herbs to be injected directly into people's blood vessels with only simple filtering

 

China's greatest doctor of the last century was named Tu Youyou, and she was one of the 100 greatest scientists of the last century. Her most famous achievement was the invention of the second malaria drug after quinine, which is still used today and saved hundreds of millions of people. This also earned her the Nobel Prize. But the story of her invention of the drug was forcibly twisted by the Chinese government in order to promote their nationalistic view of “Chinese medicine”.

The drug was named artemisinin by the Chinese government because ancient Chinese texts once wrote that Artemisia annua could treat malaria. But in fact, this special drug has nothing to do with this book or Artemisia annua. In fact, Tu Youyou and her R&D team extracted an active ingredient in Artemisia annua and added two hydrogen atoms to the artemisia artemisia extract through chemical synthesis. Regardless of whether they extract this substance from Artemisia annua, even if it is extracted from willow trees, it will be named artemisinin by the Chinese government. Because the Chinese government has long defined her drug as a victory for traditional Chinese folk medicine doctors. From 1953 to today, the Chinese government has been bombarding the people with information about traditional folk medicine doctors: from anti-intellectualism in the Mao era to today, traditional folk medicine doctors are increasingly in an irreplaceable position in today's China.

 

Traditional folk medicine doctors have also unexpectedly contributed to China's major health care product market. In 2025 alone, China's total pharmaceutical market reached  USD 328.6 Billion.[8] As of 2023 the percentage of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as part of China’s overall pharmaceutical marker was estimated at 26.5%.[9] Another bizarre medicine facilitated by modern traditional folk medicine doctors, proprietary Chinese medicine, has also been born.

 

There are three main types of proprietary Chinese medicines, the first is to mix and wash the herbs directly, grind them into powder, and pack them in bags for people to drink. The second is to concentrate the soup after calcining the herbs into granules, and the patient needs to reduce them into decoctions with water when using them. The third is to directly press the concentrated soup into tablets or capsules. They even inject the decoction after the herbs are boiled directly into the human body.

 

Of course, Chinese folk medicine doctors are aware of the ineffectiveness of most TCM’s as well as the destructive effects of some. Therefore, they counterfeit a large number of drugs and add excessive modern medical ingredients to them. All proprietary Chinese medicines can be marketed in China without any clinical trials, and they can even write that the side effects are "unclear" in their own instruction manuals. The results of this practice are what one would expect from a largely unregulated market exploited by all types of charlatans.

A study from 2015 warns that the shock rate caused by TCM injections are very high.[10]  A 2019 study conducted by the National Institute of Health concluded,

TCM injections have higher risk of adverse effects than any other dosage forms of TCM medications and higher percentage of new or serious adverse effects than conventional injections.[11]

Calculations based on known data made by the author of this article show that the shock rate caused by TCM injections has at times exceeded 60% of all Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs) to injections.  And the mortality rate has exceeded 20% of all fatalities caused by injections, resulting in more than 10,000 excess deaths due to TCM injections in recent years. [See chart below.]




Despite those facts, no one has been held accountable by the government of China for the destructive effects of TCM injections. Folk medicine doctors make a lot of money, and while their patients are not cured of their diseases, they do get lots of side effects from the injections, which in turn induces them to take more TCM concoctions, further enriching the folk medicine doctors.

 

In terms of healthcare, the Mao era did not leave any good legacy for China. We can clearly see that in most industries, the Mao era left a purely negative legacy to its successors. Are TCM injections a good legacy? Or is it a good thing to cultivate anti-intellectualism in a country? I even want to ask these so-called people who laid the foundation for the future: Are you as irrational as Mao Zedong when he promoted folk medicine doctors? Or do you think the Chinese government has not done enough to correct the problems associated with traditional folk medicine over the years? China has not been able to correct the anti-intellectual influence left by the Mao era to this day, which is the greatest legacy he left to modern China. We Chinese Totskyists reject this legacy which has proved so harmful to the people of China.

 

5. The madness of the Mao Zedong era

 

Mao's anti-intellectualism cannot be described in words. The Chinese experienced the worst health crisis under his rule. There were three main reasons. First: his "revolutionary" call for a wide movement of the national population in extremely poor sanitary conditions. Second: doctors were required to treat diseases according to "Chairman Mao's highest instructions". Third: problems caused by food and medicine shortages.

“Chairman Mao's supreme instructions” are a significant cause of Chinese health problems. In order to verify the effectiveness of traditional Chinese  patent medicine he began to call on the whole country to verify the so-called "folk remedies". In the end, several treatments stood out.

 

The method of “treating the deaf and mute with Mao Zedong Thought” was particularly praised by the Chinese government. In the Chinese government's official media "People's Daily", it was advertised as follows:

 

The "authority" and "expert" of bourgeois medicine carry out Liu Shaoqi's counter-revolutionary revisionist health line, ignoring the suffering of the working people, and blindly admiring foreign countries, and declaring all diseases that cannot be cured by foreigners as "incurable diseases". The so-called "incurable disease" is an extremely wrong argument, and it is a reflection of idealistic and metaphysical medical thought. According to the Marxist-Leninist view, everything in the world can be recognized. Therefore, all diseases should also be able to be gradually recognized and treated. The fact that we rely on Mao Zedong Thought to open up the "forbidden area" for the deaf and mute is a good example.

In order to relieve the pain of our class brothers and sisters, we are determined to prick them with needles. The dumb door point is an important acupuncture point for the treatment of deafness and mutism. However, in old acupuncture books, some classify it as a "forbidden point", and some stipulate that it can only be pierced three to five points deep. Practice has proved that piercing to this depth will not yield good results. Can you pierce it deeper? At that time, some people said: "There is no chapter on the treatment of deafness and mute in foreign books! Even foreigners think it is an 'incurable disease', but you want to cure it, what nonsense!" Some people say; if you prick an inch at this acupoint, a good person will become mute; if you prick an inch and a half points, your life will be in danger. "Bourgeois" authorities and "experts" only know how to drill into books and climb behind foreigners, where is there a little idea of breaking the rules and old frames, catching up with the world's advanced level, and serving the working people! The so-called "incurable disease" is actually a disease that cannot be treated!

I also followed Chairman Mao's teachings on the combination of revolutionary spirit and scientific attitude, and analyzed in detail the location of the dumb door point and the central nervous system in front of the human anatomy diagram with my comrades. With infinite loyalty to the great leader Chairman Mao, I took a shining silver needle and pierced the first needle deep into my dumb door point. When I pierced it to a depth of one and a half inches, I felt a strong feeling of numbness in my arms and hands, and my whole body felt like an electric shock. At this time, Chairman Mao's great voice sounded in my ears: "If you want to struggle, there will be sacrifices, and death often happens. But we think of the interests of the people and the suffering of the majority of the people, and we die for the people, which means we die well." "There is a red sun in my heart, and there is no obstacle on the way forward. I finally plunged more than two inches deep into my dumb acupoint. I was very happy that I relied on Mao Zedong Thought to open the "forbidden area" of the dumb door, which dealt a powerful blow to Liu Shaoqi's counter-revolutionary revisionist health line. In this way, I repeatedly tested on myself nearly a hundred times, pricked hundreds of needles, and gradually mastered some laws for treating deaf and dumb diseases.[12]

 

The second is to fight "chicken blood". The word "chicken blood" is still retained in Chinese as a satire. This treatment is more ridiculous than the previous one. In 1967, the Red Guards in Shanghai issued a pamphlet called "Shanghai Chicken Blood Therapy". The Chinese Ministry of Science and the medical department found this ridiculous. Under the pressure of Mao Zedong personally standing on the platform of the Red Guards, in December 1966, the Ministry of Health revoked the "Notice on "Chicken Blood Therapy" issued in 1965 in the form of an "urgent letter", admitting the mistake of banning chicken blood therapy. After that, we do not know how many people died from intravenous injection of chicken blood. A history of Chicken Blood Therapy and its eventual demise was published in 2018 in Macau in a rare instance of open criticism of Mao Zedong.[13]

Promotional item for Chicken Blood Therapy

Page 2 of Chicken Blood Therapy book

[Text of page 2 of the book on Chicken Blood, AI translation. Note that the term “Highest Directive” is a reference to the words of Mao Zedong]

Highest Directive

“The principles of Marxism are numerous and varied, but when reduced to their essence, they boil down to one sentence: It is right to rebel. … Based on this principle, one must resist, struggle, and carry out socialism.”

Chicken-Blood Therapy

“A fundamental victory in the struggle to criticize and combat the bourgeois reactionary line!”

Premier Zhou Enlai said:

“The way the Central Ministry of Health handled chicken-blood therapy was a violation of Mao Zedong Thought.”

Since chicken-blood therapy was first developed and put into practice in May 1959, it had, by the time this was written, produced remarkable results. It rapidly spread throughout the country, reaching even remote mountain and rural areas, and was enthusiastically welcomed by the broad masses of peasants and workers. It was considered to make a tremendous contribution to the principle of “preparing for war, preparing for famine, and serving the people.”

However, the Central Ministry of Health and the Shanghai Municipal Health Bureau, following the “bourgeois reactionary line,” used the “detailed investigation” of their so-called “authoritative experts” to treat this new development as something forbidden. As a result, for eight years the practice was prohibited, causing enormous harm to people's health.

After the Cultural Revolution began, the Red Guards in Beijing and the Shanghai Red Guards formed a joint investigation team to investigate and verify the situation described above. When the team returned to Beijing, it received the strong support of the Central authorities.

The “Ministry of Health of the Old City Lord” could only admit its error. On December 28, 1966, it issued a notice throughout the country withdrawing the erroneous directive that had prohibited chicken-blood therapy.

Bottom of Form

 

The third most popular folk medicine is willow branch grafting. Cut willow branches to peel off the skin, cut into the shape of a bone, open the bone cavity in the middle of the bone, apply hot chicken blood at both ends, and insert it into the middle of the two broken bones for filling. This treatment method combines the chicken blood therapy mentioned above. Others are similar to drinking kerosene for bronchitis.

 

China also made exceptions for traditional shamanistic doctors, a remnant of the Mao Zedong era. Mao personally ordered the promotion of "people's wisdom" among the populace. From that time onward, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) practitioners could obtain medical licenses without any university or professional education; these were called "barefoot doctors." The licenses obtained by these doctors were indistinguishable from those earned by university students after years of hard work. Today, this system has evolved into a pathway for those who want a medical license but don't want to study. In contemporary China, any TCM practitioner who can prove they have a lineage of "three generations" or more of "old TCM doctors" can obtain a medical license without examination. Today, this system has become a complete money-making scheme. "Old TCM doctors" accept money to take on apprentices, and in less than six months, they can obtain a medical license that university students typically study for five years or more to obtain. A business license can generally be obtained for around $10,000. A simple search for "TCM lineage" on the Chinese internet search engine Baidu will automatically fill the entire webpage with advertisements.

Under the influence of this trend of thought, the Chinese were completely shrouded in anti-intellectualism. Anti-intellectualism made the throne of Emperor Mao Zedong more secure. Finally, China has cultivated the world's least resistant generation. You can't expect people with such anti-intellectual ideas to have the most basic consciousness of modern citizens. An entire generation faced the oppression of the Chinese government and capitalists without large-scale resistance or even large-scale dissatisfaction.

 

6. What do we do?

First, we must expose the anti-intellectualism of Maoism, which is also a characteristic that one can find in Maoist groups internationally.

Second, we have to find a way to explain it to people who have a positive impression of Maoism due to a poor understanding of its history. This is especially the case in China where praising Mao is mandatory in all educational and government institutions. But I don't think it's difficult. The great image that Mao Zedong gained in the Chinese government's propaganda machine will collapse with the Chinese government.

Third, we must adhere to the correct scientific concept. Science is not developed by any one person in a flash. Science does not change with the self-righteous instructions of some people. This point was made by Trotsky a hundred years ago in a speech he gave to the Mendeleyev Society of Russian chemists:

Whenever any Marxist attempted to transmute the theory of Marx into a universal master-key and ignore all other spheres of learning, Vladimir Ilyich (Lenin) would rebuke him with the expressive phrase: “Komchvanstvo” (“Communist swagger”). This would mean in this particular case – Communism is not a substitute for chemistry.[14]

Mao Zedong Thought –a depraved caricature of communism – is no substitute for medical science.

This has relevance today for some so-called Marxists who wish to follow in the footsteps of Lysenko and substitute their political views for scientific theory and practice.[15]

 

Finally, we wish to observe a moment of silence for the Chinese who were killed by Mao Zedong’s destructive medical policies. We also wish a speedy recovery to those who have been harmed by his folk medicine  policy. We also hope that the medical profession can become a discipline that attracts students who want to work for the benefit of the people and not for an economic or political advantage for themselves.

NOTES

[2] The Manchurian plague was a pneumonic plague that originated from bacteria picked up from marmots and passed on to marmot fur hunters who, in turn, passed on the infection to immigrant Chinese laborers. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchurian_plague The Black Death was a bubonic plague. Bubonic plagues are spread by infected fleas from small animals such as rats. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague    

[3] The main information on plagues comes from https://digitalrepository.lib.hku.hk/plague

[4]  Small feet: A reference to foot binding. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foot_binding

[10] Guo YJ, Wang DW, Meng L, Wang YQ. Analysis of anaphylactic shock caused by 17 types of traditional Chinese medicine injections used to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:420607. doi: 10.1155/2015/420607. Epub 2015 Apr 27. PMID: 26000291; PMCID: PMC4426654.

https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4426654/

[11] Li H, Deng J, Deng L, Ren X, Xia J. Safety profile of traditional Chinese herbal injection: An analysis of a spontaneous reporting system in China. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2019 Jul;28(7):1002-1013. doi: 10.1002/pds.4805. Epub 2019 May 27. PMID: 31131950

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31131950/

[12] Opening the 'Forbidden Zone' for the Deaf and Mute with Mao Zedong Thought,
People's Daily, October 24, 1969, "The sun at eight or nine o'clock" | Literature

[15] Trofim Denisovich Lysenko, September] 1898 – 20 November 1976) was a Soviet agronomist. He rejected Mendelian genetics in favour of his own idiosyncratic, pseudoscientific ideas later termed Lysenkoism. In 1940, Lysenko became director of the Institute of Genetics of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, and he used his political influence and power to suppress dissenting opinions and discredit, marginalize, and imprison his critics, elevating his anti-Mendelian theories to state-sanctioned doctrine.

Soviet scientists who refused to renounce genetics were dismissed from their posts and left destitute. Several were imprisoned including the botanist Nikolai Vavilov   Lysenko's ideas and practices contributed to lower agricultural yields in the Soviet Union throughout the late 1930s until his downfall in the mid-1960s; and found political and academic influence in other Eastern Bloc countries and China from the late 1940s through the mid-1950s

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trofim_Lysenko

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